medigraphic.com
ISSN 0188-2198 (Print)

2015, Number 1

<< Back Next >>

Rev Mex Cardiol 2015; 26 (1)

Cardiorenal syndrome: New perspectives

Chávez-López EL, Alemán-Ortiz OF, Nando-Villicaña CC, Rosas-Munive E

Language: Spanish
References: 157
Page: 39-52
PDF size: 239.37 Kb.


ABSTRACT

There is a high prevalence of heart failure associated to kidney failure or viceversa. This association has been defined as a clinical entity: cardiorenal syndrome and one of its main characteristics is the resistance to treatment. Multiple hypotheses have been proposed to explain the pathophysiology of this syndrome, such as hemodynamic deregulation and recently, other neurohormonal and immunological mechanisms involved in the development and perpetuation of this pathology. Classifications have been based on the form of presentation or physiopathological manifestations. Different therapeutic approaches have been proposed to control or limit the progress of this disease. This review discusses and analyzes the current information on pathophysiology, different classifications and treatment.


REFERENCES

  1. Nhibi.nih.gov [homepage on the internet]. Cardio-renal connections in heart failure and cardiovascular disease. National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute. [Updated 2005 February 18; cited 2014 Oct 10] Available from: http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/research/reports/2004-cardiorenal-hf-hd.

  2. Ronco C, Haapio M, House AA, Anavekar N, Bellomo R. Cardiorenal syndrome. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2008; 52: 1527-1539.

  3. Bock JS, Gottlieb SS. Cardiorenal syndrome new perspectives. Circulation. 2010; 121: 2592-2600.

  4. Hatamizadeh P, Fonarow GC, Budoff MJ, Darabian S, Kovesdy CP, Kalantar-Zadeh K. Cardiorenal syndrome: pathophysiology and potential targets for clinical management. Nat Rev Nephrol. 2012; 9: 99-111.

  5. Roger VL, Go AS, Lloyd-Jones DM, Benjamin EJ, Berry JD, Borden WB et al. Heart disease and stroke statistics--2012 update: a report from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2012; 125: e2.

  6. Adams Jr KF, Fonarow GC, Emerman CL, LeJemtel TH, Costanzo MR, Abraham WT et al. Characteristics and outcomes of patients hospitalized for heart failure in the United States: rationale, design, and preliminary observations from the first 100,000 cases in the Acute Decompensated Heart Failure National Registry (ADHERE). Am Heart J. 2005; 149: 209-216.

  7. Fonarow GC, Adams KF jr, Abraham WT et al. Risk stratification for in hospital mortality in acutely descompensated heart failure classification and regression tree analysis. JAMA. 2005; 293: 572-580.

  8. Roger VL et al. Heart disease and stroke statistics-2011 update: a report from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2011; 123: 180-209.

  9. Konstam MA. Systolic and diastolic dysfunction in heart failure? Time for a new paradigm. J Card Fail. 2003; 9: 1-3.

  10. Cleland JGF, Khand A, Clark A. The heart failure epidemic: exactly how big is it?. Eur Heart J. 2001; 22: 623-626.

  11. McMurray JJ, Stewart S. Heart failure. Epidemiology, etiology, and prognosis of heart failure. Heart. 2000; 83: 596-602.

  12. Zile MR, Brutsaert DL. New concepts in diastolic function and diastolic heart failure: part I y II. Diagnosis, prognosis and measurements of diastolic function. Circulation. 2002; 105: 1387-1393.

  13. Ojeda S, Anguita M, Muñoz JF, Rodríguez MT, Mesa D, Franco M et al. Características clínicas y pronóstico a medio plazo de la insuficiencia cardiaca con función sistólica conservada. ¿Es diferente de la insuficiencia cardiaca sistólica?. Rev Esp Cardiol. 2003; 56: 1050-1056.

  14. Vasan RS, Larson MG, Benjamin EJ, Evans JC, Reiss CK, Levy D. Congestive heart failure in subjects with normal versus reduced left ventricular ejection fraction. Prevalence and mortality in a population-based cohort. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1999; 33: 1948-1955.

  15. Campos-Nonato I, Hernández-Barrera L, Rojas-Martínez R, Pedroza-Tobías A, Medina-García C, Barquera S. Hipertensión arterial: prevalencia, diagnóstico oportuno, control y tendencias en adultos mexicanos. Salud Publica Mex. 2013; 55 (Supl 2): S144-S150.

  16. Orea TA, Férez SS, Ortega SA. Programa Nacional de Registro de Insuficiencia Cardiaca. Resultados de un estudio multicéntrico mexicano. Med Int Mex. 2004; 20: 243-260.

  17. Rubinger D. Management of refractory congestive heart failure-a nephrological challenge. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2005; (Suppl 7): 37-40.

  18. Arora N, Dellsperger K. Heart failure and dialysis: new thoughts and trends. Advanc Periton Dial. 2007; 23: 72-75.

  19. Silverberg D, Wexler K, Blum M et al. The association between congestive heart failure and chronic renal disease. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens. 2004; 13: 163-170.

  20. Gansevoort RT, Correa-Rotter R, Hemmelgarn BR et al. Chronic kidney disease and cardiovascular risk: epidemiology, mechanisms, and prevention. Lancet. 2013; 382: 339-352.

  21. Levey AS, Coresh J. Chronic kidney disease. Lancet. 2012; 379: 165-180.

  22. Allon M. Evidence-based cardiology in hemodialysis patients. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2013; 24: 1934-1943.

  23. El Nahas M. Cardio-kidney-damage: a unifying concept. Kidney Int. 2010; 78: 14-18.

  24. Cheung AK, Sarnak MJ, Yan G, Berkoben M et al. HEMO Study Group: cardiac diseases in maintenance hemodialysis patients: results of the HEMO Study. Kidney Int. 2004; 65: 2380-2389.

  25. Whitman IR, Feldman HI, Deo R. CKD and sudden cardiac death: epidemiology, mechanisms, and therapeutic approaches. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2012; 23: 1929-1939.

  26. Tonelli M, Muntner P, Lloyd A. Risk of coronary events in people with chronic kidney disease compared with those with diabetes: a population-level cohort study. Lancet. 2012; 380: 807-814.

  27. Obrador GT, Villa AR, Olvera N et al. Longitudinal analysis of participants in the KEEP Mexico’s chronic kidney disease screening program. Arch Med Res. 2013; 44: 650-654.

  28. Gutiérrez-Padilla JA, Mendoza-García M, Plascencia-Pérez S et al. Screening for CKD and cardiovascular disease risk factors using mobile clinics in Jalisco, Mexico. Am J Kidney Dis. 2010; 55: 474-484.

  29. Heywood JT, Elatre W, Pal RC et al. Simple clinical criteria to determine the prognosis of heart failure. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol Ther. 2005; 10: 173-180.

  30. Smith GL, Lichtman JH, Bracken MB et al. Renal impairment and outcome in heart failure. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2006; 47: 1987-1996.

  31. Go AS, Chertow GM, Fan D, McCulloch CE, Hsu Y. Chronic kidney disease and the risk of death, cardiovascular events and hospitalization. N Engl J Med. 2004; 351: 1296-1305.

  32. Almeshari K, Ahlstrom NG, Capraro FE, Wilcox CS. A volume independent component to postdiuretic sodium retention in humans. J Am Soc Nephrol. 1993; 3: 1878-1883.

  33. Chen ZM, Pan HC, Chen YP et al. Early intravenous then oral metoprolol in 45,852 patients with acute myocardial infarction: randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. 2005; 366: 1622-1632.

  34. Han WK, Bonventre JV. Biologic markers for the early detection of acute kidney injury. Curr Opin Crit Care. 2004; 10: 476-482.

  35. Ronco C. NGAL: an emerging biomarker of acute kidney injury. Int J Artif Organs. 2008; 31: 199-200.

  36. Wagener G, Jan M, Kim M et al. Association between increases in urinary neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin and acute renal dysfunction after adult cardiac surgery. Anesthesiology. 2006; 105: 485-491.

  37. Parikh CR, Jani A, Mishra J et al. Urine NGAL and IL-18 are predictive biomarkers for delayed graft function following kidney transplantation. Am J Transplant. 2006; 6: 1639-1645.

  38. Dharnidharka VR, Kwon C, Stevens G. Serum cystatin C is superior to serum creatinine as a marker of kidney function: a meta-analysis. Am J Kidney Dis. 2002; 40: 221-226.

  39. Parikh CR, Abraham E, Ancukiewicz M, Edelstein CL. Urine IL-18 is an early diagnostic marker for acute kidney injury and predicts mortality in the Intensive Care Unit. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2005; 16: 3046-3052.

  40. Fu P, Arcasoy MO. Erythropoietin protects cardiac myocytes against anthracycline-induced apoptosis. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2007; 354: 372-378.

  41. Riksen NP, Hausenloy DJ, Yellon DM. Erythropoietin: ready for prime-time cardioprotection. Trends Pharmacol Sci. 2008; 29: 258-267.

  42. Palazzuoli A, Silverberg DS, Iovine F et al. Effects of beta erythropoietin treatment on left ventricular remodeling, systolic function, and B-type natriuretic peptide levels in patients with the cardiorenal anemia syndrome. Am Heart J. 2007; 154: 645.

  43. Blake P, Hasegawa Y, Khosla MC, Fouad-Tarazi F, Sakura N, Paganini EP. Isolation of “myocardial depressant factor(s)” from the ultrafiltrate of heart failure patients with acute renal failure. ASAIO J. 1996; 42: M911.

  44. Meyer TW, Hostetter TH. Uremia. N Engl J Med. 2007; 357: 1316-1325.

  45. Figueras J, Stein L, Diez V, Weil MH, Shubin H. Relationship between pulmonary hemodynamics and arterial pH and carbon dioxide tension in critically ill patients. Chest. 1976; 70: 466-472.

  46. Brady JP, Hasbargen JA. A review of the effects of correction ofacidosis on nutrition in dialysis patients. Semin Dial. 2000; 13: 252-255.

  47. McCullough PA, Sandberg KR. Chronic kidney disease and sudden death: strategies for prevention. Blood Purif. 2004; 22: 136-142.

  48. Gandhi SK, Powers JC, Nomeir AM et al. The pathogenesis of acute pulmonary edema associated with hypertension. N Engl J Med. 2001; 344: 17-22.

  49. Hirsch AT, Haskal ZJ, Hertzer NR et al. ACC/AHA guidelines for the management of patients with peripheral arterial disease (lower extremity, renal, mesenteric, and abdominal aortic): a collaborative report from the American Association for Vascular Surgery/Society for Vascular Surgery, Society for Cardiovascular Angiography and Interventions, Society of Interventional Radiology, Society for Vascular Medicine and Biology, and the American College of Cardiology/ American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines (Writing Committee to Develop Guidelines for the Management of Patients With Peripheral Arterial Disease). J Am Coll Cardiol. 2006; 47: e1-e192.

  50. Forfia PR, Lee M, Tunin RS, Mahmud M, Champion HC, Kass DA. Acute phosphodiesterase 5 inhibition mimics hemodynamic effects of B-type natriuretic peptide and potentiates B-type natriuretic peptide effects in failing but not normal canine heart. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2007; 49: 1079-1088.

  51. Liang F, O’Rear J, Schellenberger U et al. Evidence for functional heterogeneity of circulating B-type natriuretic peptide. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2007; 49: 1071-1078.

  52. Spanaus KS, Kronenberg F, Ritz E et al. B-type natriuretic peptide concentrations predict the progression of non diabetic chronic kidney disease: the mild-to-moderate kidney disease study. Clin Chem. 2007; 53: 1264-1272.

  53. Loria V, Dato I, Graziani F, Biasucci LM. Myeloperoxidase: a new biomarker of inflammation in ischemic heart disease and acute coronary syndromes. Mediators Inflamm. 2008; 2008: 135625.

  54. Braunwald E. Biomarkers in heart failure. N Engl J Med. 2008; 358: 2148-2159.

  55. Krishnagopalan S, Kumar A, Parrillo JE, Kumar A. Myocardial dysfunction in the patient with sepsis. Curr Opin Crit Care. 2002; 8: 376-388.

  56. Chen D, Assad-Kottner C, Orrego C, Torre-Amione G. Cytokines and acute heart failure. Crit Care Med. 2008; 36: S9-S16.

  57. Kelly KJ. Distant effects of experimental renal ischemia/reperfusion injury. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2003; 14: 1549-1558.

  58. National Kidney Foundation. K/DOQI clinical practice guidelines for chronic kidney disease: Evaluation, classification, and stratification. Am J Kidney Dis. 2002; 39: S1-S266.

  59. Coresh J, Astor BC, Greene T, Eknoyan G, Levey AS. Prevalence of chronic kidney disease and decreased kidney function in the adult US population: Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Am J Kidney Dis. 2003; 41: 1-12.

  60. Wright RS, Reeder GS, Herzog CA et al. Acute myocardial infarction and renal dysfunction: a high-risk combination. Ann Intern Med. 2002; 137: 563-570.

  61. Beattie JN, Soman SS, Sandberg KR et al. Determinants of mortality after myocardial infarction in patients with advanced renal dysfunction. Am J Kidney Dis. 2001 37: 1191-1200.

  62. Berger AK, Duval S, Krumholz HM. Aspirin, beta-blocker, and angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor therapy in patients with end-stage renal disease and an acute myocardial infarction. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2003; 42: 201-208.

  63. French WJ, Wright RS. Renal insufficiency and worsened prognosis with STEMI: a call for action. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2003; 42: 1544-1546.

  64. Liang KV, Williams AW, Greene EL, Redfield MM. Acute decompensated heart failure and the cardiorenal syndrome. Crit Care Med. 2008; 36 (1 Suppl.): S75-S88.

  65. Hillege HL et al. Renal function as a predictor of outcome in a broad spectrum of patients with heart failure. Circulation. 2006; 113: 671-678.

  66. Blake WD, Wegria R, Keating RP, Ward HP. Effect of increased renal venous pressure on renal function. Am J Physiol. 1949; 157: 1-13.

  67. Malbrain ML, Cheatham ML, Kirkpatrick, Sugrue M, Parr M, De Waele J et al. Results from the international conference of experts on intra-abdominal hypertension and abdominal compartment syndrome. Intensive Care Med. 2006; 32: 1722-1732.

  68. Bradley SE, Bradley GP. The effect of increased intra-abdominal pressure on renal function in man. J Clin Invest. 1947; 26: 1010-1015.

  69. Meldrum DR, Moore FA, Moore EE, Franciose RJ, Sauaia A, Burch JM. Prospective characterization and selective management of the abdominal compartment syndrome. Am J Surg. 1997; 45: 667-673.

  70. Maeder MT, Holst DP, Kaye DM. Tricuspid regurgitation contributes to renal dysfunction in patients with heart failure. J Card Fail. 2008; 14: 824-830.

  71. Mullens W et al. Importance of venous congestion for worsening of renal function in advanced decompensated heart failure. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2009; 53: 589-596.

  72. Bristow MR. Treatment of chronic heart failure with b-adrenergic receptor antagonists: a convergence of receptor pharmacology and clinical cardiology. Circ Res. 2001; 109: 1176-1194.

  73. Bristow MR et al. Beta 1- and beta 2-adrenergic-receptor subpopulations in non failing and failing human ventricular myocardium: coupling of both receptor subtypes to muscle contraction and selective beta 1-receptor down-regulation in heart failure. Circ Res. 1986; 59: 297-309.

  74. Bristow MR et al. Reduced beta 1 receptor messenger RNA abundance in the failing human heart. J Clin Invest. 1993; 92: 2737-2745.

  75. Jaisser F, Swynghedauw B, Delcayre C. The mineralocorticoid receptor in heart: different effects in different cells. Hypertension. 2011; 57: 679-680.

  76. Lother A et al. Ablation of mineralocorticoid receptors in myocytes but not in fibroblasts preserves cardiac function. Hypertension. 2004; 57: 746-754.

  77. Goldsmith SR, Francis GS, Cowley AW, Levine TB, Cohn JN. Increased plasma arginine vasopressin levels in patients with congestive heart failure. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1983; 1: 1385-1390.

  78. Vallon V, Miracle C, Thomson S. Adenosine and kidney function: potential implications in patients with heart failure. Eur J Heart Fail. 2008; 10: 176-187.

  79. Vallon V, Mühlbauer B, Osswald H. Adenosine and kidney function. Physiol Rev. 2006; 86: 901-940.

  80. Funaya H et al. Plasma adenosine levels increase in patients with chronic heart failure. Circulation. 1997; 95: 1363-1365.

  81. Griendling KK, Minieri CA, Ollerensaw JD, Alexander RW. Angiotensin II stimulates NADH and NADPH oxidase activity in cultured vascular smooth muscle cells. Circ Res. 1994; 74: 1141-1148.

  82. Vaziri ND, Dicus M, Ho ND, Boroujerdi-Rad L, Sindhu RK. Oxidative stress and dysregulation of superoxide dismutase and NADPH oxidase in renal insufficiency. Kidney Int. 2003; 63: 179-185.

  83. Heymes C et al. Increased myocardial NADPH oxidase activity in human heart failure. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2003; 41: 2164-2171.

  84. Young B, Zaritsky J. Hepcidin for clinicians. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2009; 4: 1384-1387.

  85. Calvillo L, Latini R, Kajstura J et al. Recombinant human erythropoietin protects the myocardium from ischemia-reperfusion injury and promotes beneficial remodeling. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2003; 100: 4802-4806.

  86. Ontkean M, Gay R, Greenberg B. Diminished endothelium-derived relaxing factor activity in an experimental model of chronic heart failure. Circ Res. 1991; 69: 1088-1096.

  87. Buga GM, Gold ME, Fukuto JM, Ignarro LJ. Shear stress-induced release of nitric oxide from endothelial cells grown on beads. Hypertension. 1991; 17: 187-193.

  88. Cook P, Rossitch E, Andon NA, Loscalzo L, Dazu VJ. Flow activates an endothelial potassium channel to release an endogenous nitrovasodilator. J Clin Invest. 1991; 88: 1663-1671.

  89. Ferrari R, Bachetti T, Agnoletti L, Comini L, Curello S. Endothelial function and dysfunction in heart failure. Eur Heart J. 1998; 19 (Suppl. G): G41-G47.

  90. Giannattasio C, Piperno A, Failla M, Vergani A, Mancia G. Effects of hematocrit changes on flow-mediated and metabolic vasodilation in humans. Hypertension. 2002; 40: 74-77.

  91. Francis GS. TNF-alpha and heart failure. The difference between proof of principle and hypothesis testing. Circulation. 1999; 99: 3213-3214.

  92. Levine B, Kalman J, Mayer L, Fillit HM, Packer M. Elevated circulating levels of tumor necrosis factor in severe chronic heart failure. N Engl J Med. 1990; 323: 236-241.

  93. Stenvinkel P, Ketteler M, Johnson LJ et al. IL-10, IL-6, and TNF-alpha: central factors in the altered cytokine network of uremia-the good, the bad, and the ugly. Kidney Int. 2005; 67: 1216-1233.

  94. Karalliedde J, Viberti G. Proteinuria in diabetes: by stander or pathway to cardiorenal disease?. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2010; 21: 2020-2027.

  95. Kasory A, Ross E. Anemia: the point of convergence or divergence for kidney disease and heart failure?. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2009; 53: 639-647.

  96. Tang WH, Tong W, Jain A et al. Evaluation and long-term prognosis of new-onset, transient, and persistent anemia in ambulatory patients with chronic heart failure. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2008; 51: 569-576.

  97. Mendes-Ribeiro AC, Brunini TM, Ellory JC, Mann GE. Abnormalities in L-arginine transport and nitric oxide biosynthesis in chronic renal and heart failure. Cardiovasc Res. 2001; 49: 697-712.

  98. Sandgren PE et al. Anemia and new-onset congestive heart failure in the general Medicare population. J Card Fail. 2005; 11: 99-105.

  99. Anker SD, Sharma R. The syndrome of cardiac cachexia. Int J Cardiol. 2002; 85: 51-66.

  100. Kalantar-Zadeh K et al. Recent advances in understanding the malnutrition-inflammation-cachexia syndrome in chronic kidney disease patients: what is next?. Semin Dial. 2005; 18: 365-369.

  101. Sukhanov S et al. Angiotensin II, oxidative stress and skeletal muscle wasting. Am J Med Sci. 2011; 342: 143-147.

  102. Pilz S et al. Association of vitamin D deficiency with heart failure and sudden cardiac death in a large cross-sectional study of patients referred for coronary angiography. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2008; 93: 3927-3935.

  103. Zittermann A et al. Low vitamin D status: a contributing factor in the pathogenesis of congestive heart failure?. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2003; 41: 105-112.

  104. Lind L, Wengle B, Ljunghall S. Blood pressure is lowered by vitamin D (alphacalcidol) during long-term treatment of patients with intermittent hypercalcaemia. A double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Acta Med Scand. 1987; 222: 423-427.

  105. Jüppner H. Phosphate and FGF-23. Kidney Int. 2011; 79: S24-S27.

  106. Faul C et al. FGF23 induces left ventricular hypertrophy. J Clin Invest. 2011; 121: 4393-4408.

  107. London GM et al. Mineral metabolism and arterial functions in endstage renal disease: potential role of 25-hydroxyvitamin D deficiency. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2007; 18: 613-620.

  108. Plischke M et al. Inorganic phosphate and FGF-23 predict outcome in stable systolic heart failure. Eur J Clin Invest. 2012; 42: 649-656.

  109. Kovesdy CP, Darryl-Quarles L. Fibroblast growth factor-23: what we know, what we don’t know, and what we need to know. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2013; 28: 2228-2236.

  110. Zoppellaro G, Faggin E, Puato M et al. Fibroblast growth factor 23 and the bone-vascular axis: lessons learned from animal studies. Am J Kidney Dis. 2012; 59: 135-144.

  111. Wolf M. Update on fibroblast growth factor 23 in chronic kidney disease. Kidney Intern. 2012; 82: 737-747.

  112. Dries DL, Exner DV, Domanski MJ, Greenberg B, Stevenson LW. The prognostic implications of renal insufficiency in asymptomatic and symptomatic patients with left ventricular systolic dysfunction. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2000; 35: 681-689.

  113. Shlipak MG et al. Rapid decline of kidney function increases cardiovascular risk in the elderly. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2009; 20: 2625-2630.

  114. USRDS; the United States Renal Data System. USRDS 2003 annual data report. Am J Kidney Dis. 2003; 421-230.

  115. Keith DS, Nichols GA, Gullion CM, Brown JB, Smith DH. Longitudinal followup and outcomes among a population with chronic kidney disease in a large managed care organization. Arch Inter Med. 2004; 164: 659-663.

  116. Mebazaa A, Gheorghiade M, Pina IL et al. Practical recommendations for prehospital and early in-hospital management of patients presenting with acute heart failure syndromes. Crit Care Med. 2008; 36: S129-S139.

  117. Bellomo R, Ronco C, Kellum JA, Mehta RL, Palevsky P, Acute Dialysis Quality Initiative Workgroup. Acute renal failure-definition, outcome measures, animal models, fluid therapy and information technology needs: the second international consensus conference of the Acute Dialysis Quality Initiative (ADQI) group. Crit Care. 2004; 8: R204-R212.

  118. Schaffer AC. Urianalysis and urine electrolytes. In: Lawry GV, McKean SC, Matloff J, Ross JJ, Dressler DD, Brotman DJ eds. Principles and practice of hospital medicine. New York, USA: MacGraw-Hill; 2012: p. 10.

  119. Cruz DN, Fard A, Clementi A, Ronco C, Maisel A. Role of biomarkers in the diagnosis and management of cardio-renal syndromes. In Sem Nephrol. 2012; 32 (1): 79-92.

  120. Freda BJ, Tang WW, van Lente F, Peacock WF, Francis GS. Cardiac troponins in renal insufficiency review and clinical implications. J Am Col Cardiol. 2002; 40: 2065-2071.

  121. Kreder KJ, Williams RD. Urologic laboratory examination. In: Tanagho EA, McAninch JW eds. Smith’s general urology. 17th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill; 2008.

  122. Fauchauld P. Effects of ultrafiltration of body fluid and transcapillary colloid osmotic gradient in hemodialysis patients, improvements in dialysis therapy. Contrib Nephrol. 1989; 74: 170-175.

  123. Shchekochikhin D, Lindenfeld J, Schrier RW. Increased spironolactone in advanced HF: effect of doses greater than 25 mg/day on plasma potassium concentration. Cardiorenal Med. 2013; 3: 1-6.

  124. Francis GS, Siegel RM, Goldsmith SR. Acute vasoconstrictior response to intravenous furosemide in patients with chronic congestive HF. Activation of the nuerohumoral axis. Ann Intern Med. 1985; 103: 1-6.

  125. Silverstein ME, Ford CA, Lysaght MJ, Henderson LW. Treatment of severe fluid overload by ultrafiltration. N Engl J Med. 1974; 291: 747-751.

  126. Lucas C, Johnson W, Hamilton MA et al. Freedom from congestion predicts good survival despite previous class IV symptoms of heart failure. Am Heart J. 2000; 140: 840-847.

  127. Metra M, Cleland JG, Weatherley BD et al. Dyspnoea in patients with acute heart failure: an analysis of its clinical course, determinants, and relationship to 60-day outcomes in the PROTECT pilot study. Eur J Heart Fail. 2010; 12: 499-507.

  128. Metra M, Teerlink JR, Felker GM et al. Dyspnoea and worsening heart failure in patients with acute heart failure: results from the Pre-RELAX-AHF study. Eur J Heart Fail. 2010; 12: 1130-1139.

  129. Binanay C, Califf RM, Hasselblad V et al. ESCAPE investigators and ESCAPE study coordinators: evaluation study of congestive heart failure and pulmonary artery catheterization effectiveness: the ESCAPE trial. JAMA. 2005; 294: 1625-1633.

  130. Forman DE, Butler J, Wang Y et al. Incidence, predictors at admission, and impact of worsening renal function among patients hospitalized with heart failure. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2004; 43: 61-67.

  131. Hasselblad V, Gattis-Stough W, Shah M. Relation between dose of loop diuretics and outcomes in a heart failure population: results of the ESCAPE trial. Eur J Heart Fail. 2007; 9: 1064-1069.

  132. Mielniczuk LM, Tsang SW, Desai AS. The association between high-dose diuretics and clinical stability in ambulatory chronic heart failure patients. J Card Fail. 2008; 14: 388-393.

  133. Kazory A. Cardiorenal syndrome: ultrafiltration therapy for heart failure-trials and tribulations. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2013; 8: 1816-1828.

  134. Guazzi MD, Agostoni P, Perego B et al: Apparent paradox of neurohumoral axis inhibition after body fluid volume depletion in patients with chronic congestive heart failure and water retention. Br Heart J. 1994; 72: 534-539.

  135. Marenzi G, Lauri G, Grazi M et al. Circulatory response to fluid overload removal by extracorporeal ultrafiltration in refractory congestive heart failure. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2001; 38: 963-968.

  136. Agostoni P, MarenziG, Lauri G et al. Sustained improvement in functional capacity after removal of body fluid with isolated ultrafiltration in chronic cardiac insufficiency: Failure of furosemide to provide the same result. Am J Med. 1994; 96: 191-199.

  137. Giglioli C, Landi D, Cecchi E et al. Effects of ultrafiltration versus diuretics on clinical, biohumoral and haemodynamic variables in patients with decompensated heart failure: the ULTRADISC study. Eur J Heart Fail. 2011; 13: 337-346.

  138. Damman K, van Deursen VM, Navis G et al. Increased central venous pressure is associated with impaired renal function and mortality in a broad spectrum of patients with cardiovascular disease. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2009; 53: 582-588.

  139. Winton FR. The influence of venous pressure on the isolated mammalian kidney. J Physiol. 1931; 72: 49-61.

  140. Bart BA, Goldsmith SR, Lee KL et al. Ultrafiltration in decompensated HF with CRS. N Engl J Med. 2012; 367: 2296-2304.

  141. Rosario LB, Stevenson LW, Solomon SD et al. The mechanism of decrease in dynamic mitral regurgitation during HF treatment: importance of reduction in the regurgitant orifice size. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1998; 32: 1819-1824.

  142. Stevenson LW, Brunken RC, Belil D et al. Afterload reduction with vasodilators and diuretics decreases mitral regurgitation during upright exercise in advanced HF. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1990; 15 (1): 174-180.

  143. Friedrich JO, Adhikari N, Herridge MS, Beyene J. Meta-analysis: low-dose dopamine increases urine output but does not prevent renal dysfunction or death. Ann Intern Med. 2005; 142: 510-524.

  144. Parissis JT, Rafouli-Stergiou P, Stasinos V et al. Inotropes in cardiac patients: update 2011. Curr Opin Crit Care. 2010; 16: 432.

  145. Follath F, Yilmaz MB, Delgado JF et al. Clinical presentation, management and outcomes in the acute HF global survey of standard treatment (ALARM-HF). Intensive Care Med. 2011; 37: 619-626.

  146. Elkayam U, Tasissa G, Binanay C et al. Use and impact of inotropes and vasodilator therapy in hospitalized patients with severe HF. Am Heart J. 2007; 153: 98-104.

  147. Leier CV, Heban PT, Huss P, Bush CA, Lewis RP. Comparative systemic and regional hemodynamic effects of Dopamine and dobutamine in patients with cardiomyopathic HF. Circulation. 1978; 58: 466-475.

  148. Valika AA, Gheorghiade M. Ace inhibitor therapy for HF in patients with impaired renal function: a review of the literature. Heart Fail Rev. 2012; 18: 135-140.

  149. Ljungman S, Kjekshus J, Swedberg K. Renal function in severe congestive HF during treatment with enalapril (the Cooperative North Scandinavian Enalapril Survival Study [CONSENSUS] Trial). Am J Cardiol. 1992; 70: 479-487.

  150. Oster JR, Meterson BJ. Renal and electrolyte complications of congestive HF and effects of therapy with angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors. Arch Intern Med. 1992; 152: 704-710.

  151. Packer M. Functional renal insufficiency during long-term therapy with captopril and enalapril in severe chronic HF. Ann Intern Med. 1987; 106: 346-354.

  152. Con J, Joseph B, Kulvatunyou N, Tang A, O’Keeffe T, Wynne JL et al. Evidence-based immune-modulating nutritional therapy in critically ill and injured patients. Eur Surg. 2011; 43: 13-18.

  153. Buijsse B, Feskens EJ, Schlettwein-Gsell D, Ferry M, Kok FJ, Kromhout D et al. Plasma carotene and α-tocopherol in relation to 10-y all-cause and cause-specific mortality in European elderly: the survey in Europe on nutrition and the elderly, a concerted action (SENECA). Am J Clin Nutr. 2005; 82: 879-886.

  154. Mangoni AA. Folic acid, inflammation, and atherosclerosis: false hopes or the need for better trials?. Clin Chimica Acta. 2006; 367: 11-19.

  155. Singleton KD, Wischmeyer PE. Glutamine attenuates inflammation and NF-kB activation via Cullin-1 deneddylation. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2008; 373: 445-449.

  156. Enos RT, Davis JM, Velázquez KT, McClellan JL, Day SD, Carnevale KA et al. Influence of dietary saturated fat content on adiposity, macrophage behavior, inflammation, and metabolism: composition matters. J Lipid Res. 2013; 54: 152-163.

  157. Wong MCY, Emery PW, Preedy VR, Wiseman H. Health benefits of isoflavones in functional foods? Proteomic and metabonomic advances. Inflammopharmacology. 2008; 16: 235-239.




2020     |     www.medigraphic.com