Marrero QRJ, Carballeira AM

Language: Spanish
References: 27
Page: 39-46
PDF size: 115.26 Kb.

ABSTRACT

Introduction

In recent years, a great deal of research has been carried out to identify the aspects that affect subjective well-being. In these studies, different indicators of well-being have been used. While some studies have used satisfaction with life as an indicator, others have focussed on psychological adjustment, while still in some other cases the focus has been on positive emotions and even physical health, understood as the lack of illness, as contributing to well-being. Nevertheless, these indicators have not been directly comparable. The objective of this study is to analyze whether optimism and social support equally affect or not subjective well-being. Subjective well-being has been defined as the global tendency to experience life in a pleasant way. The evaluation that people carry out has two components: a cognitive component, evaluated through life satisfaction, and an affective one, measured through positive and negative affect. Previous research has been centred on analysing the factors which could influence either on positive or negative ways, such as personality, optimism, coping styles, and social support. It has been demonstrated that well-being is determined, in some way, by optimism and social support. However, there has been very little research analysing the relative impact of these variables on the different measures of well-being. Thus, the purpose of this study was to examine the influence of optimism and social support on the different components of subjective well-being. We have analysed: firstly, the relationships of optimism and social support with well-being; second, whether or not optimists feel more subjective well-being; third, social support together with optimism have an enhancer effect on well-being; and four, optimism and social support can differentially predict the several components of subjective well-being. Method

This is a cross-sectional study where subjective well-being has been assessed in 477 people from general population between 18 and 66 years old (M=25.66; SD=8.81). The following measures were used: satisfaction with specific life domains (partner, job/studies, health and leisure), life satisfaction, positive emotions, negative emotions, and mental health. Optimism was evaluated through the Life Orientation Test–Revised (LOT-R) and Social Support through the Social Support Questionnaire (SSQ-6). Moreover, certain demographic and physical health characteristics were assessed through a semi-structured interview. In order to analyse the relationships among the variables included in the study, we administered partial correlations, controlling for gender. Also, one-way analyses were conducted to discover any differences in well-being between high, medium, and low optimists. Afterwards, U Mann-Whitney was applied in order to analyze whether optimist people with high social support show more well-being than optimist people without social support. Finally, in order to study the capacity of optimism and social support in predicting the different components of well-being, several multiple regression analyses were applied. Results

Results showed that socio-demographic and physical health variables do not influence optimism. There is a close relationship between optimism and all the measures of subjective well-being, with optimists showing more life satisfaction, fewer psychological symptoms, more positive emotions, less negative emotions, and being more satisfied in several specific life domains, such as partner and health. Perceived social support is associated with different signs of well-being, although the extent of the correlation is lower. Participants with more perceived social support show better adjustment, more life satisfaction and partner satisfaction, they have more positive emotions and less negative emotions. There are not significant associations of perceived social support with health satisfaction and with job satisfaction. The amount of social support resources shows low correlations with subjective well-being, particularly with some of the psychological adjustment measures and with life satisfaction. When differences between high and low optimists are analysed, similar results are observed. High optimists have less anxiety, depression, interpersonal sensitivity symptoms, and score lower in the strength disorder index than low optimists. Moreover, high optimists experience more positive emotions and less negative ones, report more satisfaction with their partner, with health and with life in general, and have more perceived social support. So, optimism seems to have an influence on most of the well-being components. On the other hand, when optimism and social support effect on well-being are analyzed altogether, it can be observed that high optimist people with high social support show more positive emotions, more satisfaction with leisure, more life satisfaction; and less negative emotions, depression and interpersonal sensitivity than high optimists with poor social support. Regarding the capacity of optimism and both measures of social support –the perceived social support and the amount of support sources– in predicting the different components of well-being, it has been found that the relevance of optimism and social support in the prediction of well-being depends on which component of it is considered. Life satisfaction is predicted by optimism, perceived social support, and the amount of support sources, around 30% of the variance. Mental health is predicted by optimism followed by perceived social support (20.2% of the variance). Positive and negative emotions are predicted by optimism and perceived social support (14% and 12.7% of the variance respectively). Satisfaction with specific life domains is poorly predicted by optimism and perceived social support, except for satisfaction with partner, which is predicted (around 10%) by perceived social support and optimism. Discussion and conclusions

Overall, the results reveal the importance of optimism and social support on subjective well-being, even though their effect is not the same on the different subjective well-being components. Optimism is more related with well-being than social support. It is more related with life satisfaction, positive affect, negative affect, and psychological adjustment than with satisfaction in specific life domains. Probably, in considering optimism as a global expectation, it could influence to a great extent on general well-being components. On the other hand, perceived social support has more influence on satisfaction with specific life domains. This could be due to the fact that in estimating of daily life situations, the others may play a more important role on cognitive judgements of individuals. This study is important in identifying the diferential influence of measures, such as optimism and social support, on the components of well-being. Optimism has showed more influence on general indicators of well-being, and perceived social support plays a more important role on specific domains. The amount of social support sources does not seem to have any influence on well-being indicators. Even though, beforehand, optimism seems to be related to a higher extent with wellbeing than with social support, it has been found that social support interacting with high optimism, can promote some areas of well-being. There are, of course, several limitations to the study that must be addressed, such as the fact that it is a descriptive study. Suggesting that optimism and social support may be determinants of well-being, it is equally plausible that certain components of well-being —such as affective components— influence one’s level of optimism or social support. Moreover, it could be necessary to take into consideration other variables, such as personality or coping, that could also have an influence on subjective well-being. Results are important to implement future interventions which promote subjective well-being through the promotion of optimism and interpersonal relationships.

REFERENCES

1. Diener E. Subjective well-being. Psychol Bull 1984;95:542-575.

2. Borg C, Hallberg IR. Life satisfaction among informal caregivers in comparison with non-caregivers. Scand J Caring Sci 2006;20:427-438.

3. Bray I, Gunnell D. Suicide rates, life satisfaction and happiness as markers for population mental health. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 2006;41:333-337.

4. Martiny K, Lunde M, Undén M, Dam H, Bech P. Adjunctive bright light n non-seasonal major depression: results from patient-reported symptom and well-being scales. Acta Psychiatr Scand 2005;111:453-459.

5. Fredrickson BL, Joiner T. Positive emotions trigger upward spirals toward emotional well-being. Psychol Sci 2002;13:172-175.

6. Frijda NH. Emotions and hedonic experience. En: Kahneman D, Diener Ed, Schwarz N (eds). Well-being: The foundations of hedonic psychology. New York: Russell Sage Foundation; 1999.

7. Ridder D, Fournier M, Bensing J. Does optimism affect symptom report in chronic disease?: What are its consequences for self-care behaviour and physical functioning? J Psychosom Res 2004;56:341-350.

8. Fredrickson BL. What good are positive emotions? Rev of Gen Psychol 1998;2:300-319.

9. Chang EC. Does dispositional optimism moderate the relation between perceived stress and psychological well-being?: A preliminary investigation. Pers Individ Dif 1998;25:233-240.

10. Day L, Maltby J. Belief in good luck and psychological well-being: The mediating role of optimism and irrational beliefs. J Psychol 2003;137:99-112.

11. Edwards LM, Lopez SJ. Perceived family support, acculturation, and life satisfaction in Mexican American youth: A mixed-methods exploration. J Couns Psychol 2006;53:279-287.

12. Karademas EC. Self-efficacy, social support and well-being: The mediating role of optimism. Pers Individ Dif 2006;40:1281-1290.

13. Scheier MF, Carver CS. Optimism, coping and health: Assessment and implications of generalized outcome expectancies. Health Psychol 1985;4:219-247.

14. Brissette I, Scheier MF, Carver CS. The role of optimism in social network development, coping, and psychological adjustment during a life transition. J Pers Soc Psychol 2002;82:102-111.

15. Chico E. Optimismo disposicional como predictor de estrategias de afrontamiento. Psicothema 2002;14:544-550.

16. Scheier MF, Carver CS. Effects of optimism on psychological and physical well-being: Theoretical overview and empirical update. Cognit Ther Res 1992;16:201-228.

17. Cohen S, Wills T. Stress, social support, and the buffering hypothesis. Psychol Bull 1985;98:310-357.

18. Kahn JH, Hessling RM, Russell DW. Social support, health, and wellbeing among the elderly: what is the role of negative affectivity? Pers Individ Dif 2003;35:5-17.

19. Scheier MF, Carver CS, Bridges MW. Distinguishing optimism from neuroticism (and trait anxiety, self-mastery, and self-esteem): A Reevaluation of the Life Orientation Test. J Pers Soc Psychol 1994;67:1063-1078.

20. Derogatis LR. SCL-90-R. Sympton Checklist-90-R. Administration, scoring, and procedures manual (tercera edición). Minneapolis: National Computer Systems; 1994.

21. Diener E, Emmons RA, Larsen RJ, Griffin S. The Satisfaction with Life Scale. J Pers Assess 1985;49:71-75.

22. Watson D, Clark LA, Tellegen A. Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS Scales. J Pers Soc Psychol 1988;54:1063-1070.

23. Sarason IG, Sarason BR, Shearin EN, Pierce GR. A brief measure of social support: practical and theoretical implications. J Soc Pers Relat 1987;4:497-510.

24. Galván J, Romero M, Rodríguez EM, Durand A et al. La importancia del apoyo social para el bienestar físico y mental de las mujeres reclusas. Salud Mental 2006;29:68-74.

25. Chou KL. Social support and subjective well-being among Hong Kong Chinese young adults. J Genet Psychol 1999;160:319-331.

26. Diener E, Seligman MEP. Very happy people. Psychol Sci 2002;13:81-84.

27. Judge TA, Bono JE. Relationship of core self-evaluations traits -self-esteem, generalised self-efficacy, locus of control, and emotional stability- with job satisfaction and job performance: A meta-analysis. J Appl Psychol 2001;86:80-92.